Racial Diversity in Society Worksheet Essay Example for Free

Racial Diversity in Society Worksheet Essay Complete the following using the MySocLab Social Explorer Map: Income Inequality by Race (located on the student website) as a reference: †¢Select 1 racial group from the list below: African American Asian American Arab American Hispanic American/Latino White/Caucasian †¢Write a 150- to 300-word summary of the economic, social, and political standings of that group. Use additional resources if necessary, from the University Library or your textbooks. Provide citations for all the sources you use. Hispanic Americans or Latinos in America descend from many different countries such as Mexico, Puerto Rico, Cuba, and The Dominican Republic. They come to the United States as immigrants for a variety of different reasons, but the most common is that they come here in search of the American Dream. From an economic point of view Hispanics remain at the bottom of the job ladders due to the fact that many of them are not educationally equipped and are not fluent in English which are both necessities when it comes to the jobs in demand. Their lack of formal education is what is keeping them down in our nation’s technology run job market. Studies show that less and less Hispanic Americans are finishing high school, and without the skills that education will teach them they will continue to flounder in todays economy. When it comes to social statistics it is overwhelmingly clear that faith and family have and continue to be the cornerstone of the Hispanic American Family values and a huge part of their religious based culture. Politically, due to the fact that the majority of  Hispanic Americans are lower or middle cla ss, they tend to agree with the democratic views when it comes to politics. Part II Answer the following in 50 to 150 words each. Provide citations for all the sources you use. †¢What is racism? In what ways does racism affect diversity? Racism can be defined as the belief that a specific racial group is superior or inferior to another and that there is nothing that any individual who belongs to that racial group does (economically, socially, politically) can change it. Racism affects diversity through outlets such as discrimination and prejudice that we hold against one another due to the fact that our skin is not all the same color. Today, we hear words like that (prejudice and discrimination) and we are quick to object to the accusation that we can still, after all we as a nation have overcome when it comes to touchy subjects like this, be guilty of such negative ways of thinking. However, it is clear that some things clearly have not changed when we look at statistics that show that in American society whites are still hired for high paying jobs in greater numbers than minorities with the same credentials or that minorities still seem to make up the majority of inmate populations in todays prisons. †¢How do racial groups interact in contemporary America? Are interactions positive, negative, or neutral? Support your response using proper citations. Today, it is not uncommon for racial groups to interact with each other in a mostly positive way due to the fact that in most communities we are not separated based on our racial background when it comes to things such as the schools we attend and jobs that we are allowed to hold like we have been in the past. This is thanks to desegregation and affirmative action laws that have been put into action over the past several years. However, even with these laws we are not a perfect nation and there is still cases where social  inequities can allow discrimination and prejudices to rear their ugly heads in today’s society. Social inequities can affect a particular races basic human rights such as the right to live in a certain area, be hired for a certain job, be able to travel freely, acceptance into schools or colleges, and even the right to vote. †¢Are there existing social inequities based on race? Why or why not? Social inequities is one of those touchy subjects that some people say still exist and some people say does not. Like many subjects similar to this one (racism in general, prejudice, and discrimination) people’s views on it can differ tremendously. Some speak from experience and some speak on it based on facts that they are taught. I’ll touch on an example that I previously mentioned to support the argument that yes, social inequities are existent in today’s society. When you look at prisons today, it is clear that minorities make up a much larger chunk of the inmate population than whites. People who argue that social inequities are the cause of this say that this is a result if whites having always been a more protected race in the US and because of this so called protection, they are favored in the justice system and are given more access to better attorneys. People who support the idea that social inequities don’t exist can of course use the argument t hat the reason that minorities make up most of the inmate population is simply because they are the ones who are responsible for committing the crimes that get them in trouble in the first place. †¢What do you believe to be the causes of racial prejudice and discrimination in today’s society? Looking back at our Nation’s history, it’s clear that racism has and continues to be a problem here. However, it’s also clear that he have taken huge steps, which include legal actions, in order to eliminate it. Unfortunately it is not something that can be completely abolished overnight, and we have to have patience in order to keep the movement pressing forward. The awareness that courses such as this one provides are also great tools when it comes to educating more people on the issue, the  causes, and what can be done to keep it from spreading. I believe that the main cause of racial prejudices is the fact that although as a nation (united) we are against it there are still individual people and families amongst us who refuse to stop it in their personal lives and who continue to teach it to their children generation after generation. Racism is something that is taught, as there is now way for it to be passed genetically or inherently. References Braubach, M. (2010, January 4). Social inequities in environmental risks associated with housing and residential location—a review of evidence. Oxford Journals. Retrieved from http://eurpub.oxfordjournals.org/content/20/1/36.abstract?sid=4aa802c1-b338-41e1-b724-eef7ecee7791 Huffman, A. (2012, November 15). How Hispanics Impact Political, Social and Economic Climate. Charisma News. Retrieved from http://www.charismanews.com/us/34581-how-hispanics-impact-political-social-and-economic-climate Schaefer, R. T. (2012). Racial and Ethnic Groups (13th ed.). : Merrill Prentice Hall.

My Philosophy and Theory about English Teaching Essay -- Teaching Educ

My Philosophy and Theory about English Teaching Teaching is a performance, a journey, and a battle. It is political, it is taxing, and its rewards are often not reaped until years later. A classroom requires quick thinking and reactions, and the modern teacher must succeed in lives of teenagers that are becoming increasingly more tenuous and complicated. All of these items factor into why everything a successful teacher does must have the firm backing of his or her own teaching philosophy and theory. When I stand in front of my first English class and begin my effort at teaching, the farthest things from my mind will be the academic battles between the proponents of whole language and phonics. I will not be thinking about whether my ideas are at odds with Bertonneau's, or whether I will be doing Maxine Greene proud. All of these ideas will have gelled together to form my very own teaching philosophy and theory, so that I always have my own frame of reference to carry me through any situation I may face as a teacher. This is what the construction of a teaching philosophy and theory is all about - creating something that is deeply personal to your own goals as a teacher, something that is ever-evolving, yet still rooted in its original objectives. This paper is divided into separate philosophy and theory sections, but the two will form an ever-evolving, symbiotic relationship to my success as a teacher. My teaching theory - how my students go about reaching the goals explained in m y philosophy - will be based directly upon my philosophy, so it is important to discuss my philosophy first. My Teaching Philosophy What is most important about my own teaching philosophy is my intended outcomes for my students. What do I wa... ...igh school graduate has the common experience of reading Shakespeare, and this is another reason we read classics. Part of my theory on literature includes the meshing of older classics with new, even pop-culture, readings that balance the class and make it exciting. A teacher's philosophy and theories that accompany it must be ever changing to be successful. Someone once said that, "He who dares to teach must never cease learning." This is especially true for constructing a philosophy and theory. As English is an "open" subject - one that can continuously grow and change - I fully expect my philosophy and theory to undergo many changes as I venture into my career. My primary goals as an English teacher are, in essence, to get students to think and communicate effectively, and I believe that my philosophy and theory lend credence and support to this basic goal.

The Effect of Macro Economic Policy on Nigerian Economics Growth and Development

This research work focus on the appraisal of Macroeconomic Policy on Inflation in Nigerian Economy, also to determine how it enhances the growth of Nigerian Economy. The aim of this research work is to look into challenges and numbers of hypothesis were drawn. Information necessary to address the test of hypothesis was gathered through secondary data, source from Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN). Economic analysis was used to formulate the three (3) models that were stated in this research work.Multiple regressions were also used to test the appraisal of Macroeconomic Policy on Inflation in Nigerian Economy. The findings of this research show that macro-economic policy as a tool for Economic Policy and Growth as a Positive Effect on the Growth in Nigeria. In conclusion, government should ensure that operational problems are tackled prior to sale so that there would not be any barrier hindering the high degree of efficiency that is associated with the stability of the Nigerian economy.Ov er the years, Nigeria has made conscious and determined efforts to attain a high level of social and economic transformation of the economy in order to attain the development goals and including monetary policy, fiscal, policy, exchange control measures and income and price control. The measures adopted were changed from time to time to reflect the changing economic environment and circumstances. This work focuses on two of the policies adopted (monetary and fiscal policy) and examines their uses for economic growth and stability in Nigeria.Since the main burden of aggregate economic policy must fall on either monetary policy and fiscal policy or a combination of both. The question arises as to whether to clear cut distinction can be made between policies which are termed â€Å"MONETARY† are those which are to be called â€Å"FISCAL† The truth is that considerable ambiguity about these terms exist and this often leads to useless debate and confusion. However, monetary policy can be as a measure which deals with the discretionary control of money supply by the monetary authorities with a view of achieving stated economic objectives.In other words, it employs the use of variation in the money supply to achieve economic objectives. Fiscal policy on the other hand may be defined as the policy pursued by a government to influenced economics activities in economy by changing the size and content of taxation, expenditure and public debt with a view to achieving given objective. Although, there two policies are independent tools of economics stabilization, they are often combined by most countries for a greater effect on the economy. Monetary and Fiscal policies as adopted in Nigeria have four broad objectives.The objectives include: ¬ †¢Maintenance of relative stability in domestic price †¢Attainment of a high and sustainable rate of economic development †¢Maintenance of balance of payment equilibrium growth and stability are so closely related that the economic policy o the government should include both of them. Economic growth may be judges from the growth it total output of the economy as measured by annual increases in net national prod, ct in constant price. Such a measure tells us how much bigger the total economy is becoming over a period of time, but it tells nothing about changes in the standard of living of the people in the economy.The more significant measures in the growth in real net national product divided by the number of people in the population. There are many targets of economic growth and development. They include. †¢Income distribution Gross national product Sectoral development (such as agriculture industries etc) †¢The pressure to attain economic stability or our economic is so strong that measures to promote federal government t fidget. †¢To achieve the maximum practicable rate of growth, d is necessary to have stability. This does not mean a perfectly smooth rate of growth , but one that is not interrupted by recessions and depression. Stabilization policies that are usually released annually concerns attempts to stabilize the level of national income by ensuring that serious inflationary and deflationary gaps do not persist so that something close to full employment without rapid inflation can be achieved. The government uses the instruments of monetary and fiscal policies to influence economic growth and development. The instrument of monetary policy available to the Nigeria monetary authorities include: †¢Rediscount rate †¢Interest rate structure †¢Reserve requirement †¢Direct credit control †¢Exchange rate and †¢Moral suasionSome of the Fiscal policies relating to economy a growth and stability in Nigeria include: tax incentives (capital allowance, income tax relief, reconstruction tax exemption etc. relief from import duties, tariffs measures and budgetary measures. The government uses the instruments in achieving ec onomic growth and stability. 1. 2STATEMENT OF PROBLEM This study is basically aimed at -Has there been effort to study the monetary and fiscal policies used by the Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN) in achieving economic growth and stability. -The ability to access the effectiveness of monetary and fiscal policies. Has there been recommendation to correct observed mistake by (CBN). If done, this will enable the monetary authorities to make optimal use of various monetary and fiscal tools at their disposal for rapid economic growth and stability. 1. 3AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY The general aim of this study is to examine the real problem of macroeconomic policy in Nigeria and propose some stabilization policies. While specific objectives are: 1. To study the monetary and fiscal policies; used by the Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN) in achieving economic growth and stability. 2.To asses the effectiveness of monetary and fiscal policies 3. To make recommendation to correct observed mistake by the Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN) this will enable the monetary authorities to make optimal use of the various monetary and fiscal tool at their disposal for rapid economic growth and stability. 1. 4RESEARCH QUESTION Can monetary and fiscal policy be used as a tool to achieve economic growth? Could monetary and fiscal policy assess the effectiveness of monetary and credit policies? Does the policies of the Central Bank useful to achieve rapid economic growth and stability? 1. 5THE STATEMENT OF HYPOTHESISHYPOTHESIS 1 Ho-The monetary and fiscal policy, does not achieve economic growth and stability. HA-The monetary and fiscal policy achieve economic growth and stability. HYPOTHESIS 2 Ho-The effectiveness of monetary and credit policies could not be assess using the monetary an I fiscal policy. HA-The assess of effectiveness of monetary and credit policies will attain using monetary and fiscal policy. HYPOTHESIS 3. Ho-The observed mistake corrected by CBN could not be use to attain economic growth and stat lily. HA-Will correct the CBN from observed mistake so as to achieve rapid economic growth and stability. 1. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY The research work will make use of secondary data obtained from various institution and publication. The data will be obtained from Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN) Federal Office of Statistics (FOS), various publications from local and inter rational journal. The research work would be tested using regression analysis especially ordinary last square method will be used in construction the model. 1. 7 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY It is hope that this research work will be practically and theoretical significant to the household, firm and government and for the improvement of the whole economy.There is no doubt that this study will benefit quit a number of people especially units involved. 1. 8 THE SCOPE AND LIMITATION OF STUDY This study macro economic tools measure under the period of Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP) and mid seve nty's (70's) (1978-2006) also in examining our effective and efficient the macro economic tools measures have change in the economy s nee 1970's only the activities of commercial, merchant, special banks and central bank will be used. This will be done through looking into the financial indicators in the economy. -The number of banks in operation Money stock in the economy Growth of credit allocation Banks loan and advances Growth of bank loans and advances Average interest rate (%) A detail of this is in the date analysis which should be treated in further study. Most of the information and data used was collected mostly from Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN) through their annual reports bulleting and statement of account. This study shall be carried out exclusively in relation to the Nigeria economy. This study as comprehensive as possible except for some constraints encountered during the course of study.There was a problem of time limit for the completion of the work. The regroup an d hectic academic programmes which coincides with exams and period of the study or research was impediment. Inadequacy of data was also major constraint other limitations of the study are time period under study and lack of current year data. 1. 9ORGANISATION OF THE STUDY The project is structured into five chapters: Chapter One dealt with the introduction which includes brief description of Nigerian Economy, Area of merger in the economy, Relevant and Significance of the study, Definition of terms, Scope and Limitations.Chapter Two is mainly the Literature Review and Theoretical Frame Work of the study, the meaning and definition of Merger, motives of Merger and Acquisition, Merger game and the effect on the economy. Chapter Three based on the research method this include method of data collection, hypothesis to be tested and the statistical tools that are to be used. Chapter Four dealt with the research methodology, data preparation and analysis. Chapter Five is the Summary, Recom mendation and Conclusion of the research study. 1. 10DEFINITION OF TERMS 1.Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN): As he only financial institution established and charged with the day of day management and control of the nation's monetary affairs, the supervision and co-ordination of banking and financial activities of the cc entry. 2. Monetary Policy: Can be described as measures that deal with the discretionary control of money supply try monetary authorities with a view to achieving stated economic objective. 3. Fiscal Policy: Can be desirable as the policy pursued by the government to influence economic activities in an economy. . IS CURVE: This is the locus of point r to of combinations of various level of rate interest (r) and the level of income (Y) that yields equilibrium in this product market. 5. LM CURVE: This is the locus of various combination of interest rates and level of income that brigs about equilibrium. CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2. 1MEANING AND OBJECTIVE OF FISCAL AN D MONETARY POLICIES Generally, fiscal policy is one of the many policies that are use by the government to influence economic activity of a country at a particular period.This policy involves the control of taxes and government expenditure. It is often called â€Å"power of the purse† instrument and it is design to effectuate changes in output and employment level to the desired standard especially in mixed and free market economies. Aigbokhan (1995) in his book defines fiscal policy as the use of government spending to influence economic outcome through taxation and expenditure or various forms of expenditure so government is directly spending.Fiscal policy like other government policies derives it meaning and direction from the goals and aspirations of the society within which it operate and the people whom it serves pursuits of the goals and aspirations in turn involves the acceptance of the following objective of the and budgetary policy. †¢To make available for econ omic development of the maximum flow with human and material resources consisting with minimum current consumption requirement. †¢To maintain reasonable economic stability in the face of long run inflationary pressure and short term international price movements. To reduce where they exist, the extreme inequalities in which income and consumption standard. Fiscal policy plays an important role in less developed countries (LDCS) because the less per capital income and which lead to government controlling the economic activities because of the condition of the economy. Baunsgaard (2004) observes that fiscal policy in oil producing countries can be profoundly affected by oil revenue uncertainties and volatility. Policy formulation should factor in the exhaustibility of the natural resources and aim at reducing oil revenue volatility passed to the economy.Past fiscal policy in Nigeria has not been successful in this regard. Since both revenue and expenditure have been highly volati le to a large extent reflecting oil price level. On the other hand monetary policy refers to the combination of measure design to regulate the values, supply and cost of money in an economy in consonance with the level of economic activity. Enoma (2002) in his book pin point's monetary policy at controlling supply of money so as to counteract all undesirable trends in an economy may include disequilibrium in the balance of payment.In the same view, Soludo (2005) define â€Å"monetary policy action as any careful or conscious action undertaken by the monetary authority to change the quality, the availability and the cost of money in an economy to achieve a set objective†. There is a consensus of opinion that monetary policy is a policy which aims at influencing economic activities by variation in the supply of money availability of credit and/or in interest rate. In the formulation of monetary policy therefore some attention has to be given to the attainment of these major goa ls of macro economic policy. -Maintenance of high rate employment Maintenance of relative stability in prices -Achievement of high and sustainable rate of economic development -Maintenance of balance of payment equilibriumIn sum, the paramount of embrace objectives of monetary policy could be said to be stable economic growth. However as the foregoing discussions makes clear, the major role of monetary policy in making domestic and external sector stability and thereby creating the macro economics conditions for long term growth. The techniques (tools) by which the monetary authorities tries to achieve the above objective can be classifies broadly into two main categories. a)The direct or portfolio control approach (b)The indirect or market intervention Under a system of direct monetary control, the monetary authority uses some criteria to determine monetary and credit targets and interest rate which are intermediate target to attempt to achieve that ultimate objective of policy. On the other hand, the indirect monetary controls due to the intermediate variables, particularly the market is left to determine investment and credit allocation. It is the attempt to manipulate these policy tools that essentially constitute conscious effort on the part of the authority to regulate the national economy.These tools are as follows:  ¬ (a)Open market operation (b)Cash reserve requirement (c)Liquidity ratios (d)Stabilization securities (e)Discount window operation (f)Moral suasion OPEN MARKET OPERATION (OMO):- it involves discretionary power of the central bank to purchase or sell securities in the financial market in order to; influence the volume of liquidity and levels of interest rate which ultimately will affect money supply. When central bank purchases instruments, it infects money into the economy and bank ability to expand, credit is enhanced and vice versa.CASH RESERVE REQUIREMENT: – Cash reserve requirement are used to complement the operations of OMO. They are fixed as a proportion of bank deposits liabilities require to be deposited with the central bank. They are particularly effective for sterilizing excess liquidity in the banking system and also can be easily monitored on a day basis because they are held by the central bank. LIQUIDITY RATIOS: – liquidity ratios are computed as a proportion of commercial and merchant banks current liabilities such as deposit liabilities, short term inter bank town net balance with foreign branches, and bank free balance with the central bank.Government debts instrument with a maturity of less than eighteen months. Liquidity ratio is used to complement OMO and it is potentially strong tool for restraining credit expansion. STABILIZATION SECURITIES: – Although the use of stabilization securities as an instrument of monetary policy is been de-emphasized essentially because policy has gradually shifted towards indirect control. This instrument of monetary control has been found to be inconsistent with the general philosophy of guided deregulation, although in the past, it had been very supportive of monetary policy.DISCOUNT WINDOW OPERATIONS:- The main goal of discount window operation is to provide collateralized overnight accommodation to discount house as well as banks that could not obtain funds on reasonable terms of discount and/or in the inter bank market. MORAL SUASION: – This is regarded as a special appeal to banks by central banks. It plays useful role in monetary management as a supplementary tool. It enables close and constant interaction between market operations and central bank such interactions promotes understanding and engender mutual confidence between the central bank and the players in the country's financial market. 2. ISSUES IN FISCAL AND MONETARY POLICIES In Nigeria monetary and fiscal policies have been implemented with the aim of achieving sustained economic growth, price stability and balance of payment viability. Utomi (20 05) expresses his own view on monetary control following the Soludo solution on the use of effective monetary policy in 2006 by arguing that monetary restraints reduces the availability of credit and increases its interest cost, it was retarding the flow of expenditures, output and employment and incomes. While monetary case makes credit more available and reduces its interest cost and thus encourages an expansion in these flow.However, a change in monetary policy may take the form of positive actions such as open market sales, increase in required reserve ratios or increase in discount rates which a policy of monetary ease to stimulate the expansion of expenditure will operate through the same process as are restrictive policy but in the reserved direction, such an expansive policy still tend to increase returns on treasury security to improve liquidity of banks to enhance wealth position of all holders of financial assets and to increase money supply.Soludo (2006) in an interview titled my vision for Nigerian banks recognize the expectation of the economy, Soludo said, â€Å"Money capital market should be expanded with the level that is consistent with the economy. To achieve this there should be a refocus more on the monetary function, if it possible to outsource the supervisions of banks†. Duesenberry (1964) argues that some people would like to rely or monetary policy as the primary instrument for controlling aggregate demand.In fact, some would like to see policy decision which influence demand taken out of the political arena while others would like to find a way to disconnect decisions about taxes and expenditures from the issues of employment and inflation. He further explained that fiscal and monetary policies in terms of an annually balanced budget or at least a balanced budget at a full employment level of income would then be possible. This is base on the fact that, monetary policy of a country is directed towards maintaining the right amou nt of money i. . amount of money which will enable stable prices to be maintained and full employment to be shared without introducing balance of payment problems into the economy. Besides, some critics have attached the assumptions of flexibility in monetary policies. They recognized that it takes much less time to put monetary policy into operation than it does in fiscal policy. They propose that it takes longer for monetary measures to take hold, while fiscal policy on the other hand has a direct and powerful impact upon the income stream.Contrarily, monetary policy's first impact is on the asset structure and only through its effect on this structure does it indirectly and with some days affect the income stream, thus heavy use of monetary policy lead to instability in financial markets, while the resulting fluctuations in security or bonds prices may run over it, a general fluctuation in monetary activity Siegel (1965). In addition, monetary policy is more effective in checking off boom condition than in generating recovering from recession condition.If commercial banks reserves are under pressure from market serving operation coupled with a high discount rate and if investment is also largely financed by extension of bank credit, then further construction action by the Federal Reserve will cut deeply into the expenditure circuit and slow down or stop the expansion of the economy. Monetary policy appears to be of limited effectiveness in promoting the high level of employment and high growth rate objective but the economic growth can be best approached through the use of fiscal policy.In fact these few object are naturally re-enforcing rapid economic growth requires a high level of employment and full employment encourages the introduction of labour saving capital goods. Thus fiscal policy contributes directly to both employment and economic growth by increasing gross expenditure to maintain gross domestic product aggregate output level, Baunsgarrd (2004) . He further emphasize that fiscal policy in oil producing countries can be profoundly affected by oil revenue uncertainty and volatility, policy formulation should factor in the xhaustibility of the natural resources and aim at reducing oil revenue volatility passed to the economy. However he painted out that past fiscal policy in Nigeria has not been successful in this regard since both revenue and expenditure have been highly volatile to a large extent reflecting oil prices level. Furthermore, Aigbokhan (1995) argues that in showing the relative effectiveness of monetary and fiscal policy, there is an issue which has engaged the attention of economist for decades that of the relative effectiveness of pure monetary policy and pure fiscal policy in influencing economic activities.Pure monetary policy refers to the change in nominal money supply leaving government or taxes unchanged while pure fiscal policy is one which there are changes in government expenditure or taxes leaving no minal monetary supply unchanged. 2. 3KEYNES DEBATE ON MONETARY AND FISCAL POLICIES Keynes versus monetarist debate gives conflicting advice to government on the role and effectiveness of monetary policy.The Keynesian argue that the interest rate is the most important variable as a tool for the monetary authorities to control the economy, so they argue that monetary policy should be subsidiary to fiscal policy on the other hand, the monetarist argues that a steady growth in the money supply is the best policy to follow and that monetary policy's directed to control money supply is one paramount important. Milton Friedman believes that monetary policy cannot be use to achieve an unemployment which is lower than the natural rate of unemployment.While the Keynesian view argued that monetary policy should be directed at interest rate rather than money supply and that monetary policy should at all times be subsidiary to fiscal policy. The monetarist argued and recommended that control of money supply should be the major concern of the monetary authorities. The general instruments of activist policy are taxes, government spending and the money supply; activist policy can be classified as either monetary or fiscal policy.Keynes (1958) made changes in the long term rate of interest, the main instrument of monetary policy rather than changes in short term rates, he argued that the demand for working capital was insensitive to changes in short term interest rates but that the demand for fixed capital was responsive to changes in the long term rate of interest. Monetary policy is the deliberate control of the money supply and in some case, current condition for the purpose of achieving macro economic goals.Conversely, fiscal policy is the deliberate control of federal government spending and taxes structure and the determination of the volume of tax revenue such explicit purpose of attaining one or more specific objective such as full employment. The income and expenditur e models pioneered by Keynes, view the role of money much differently from the classical quantity theory. He also viewed the link between money supply and desired aggregate expenditure in a different light. He rejected the two classical notions of fixed velocity and full employment.In the Keynes model, monetary policy affects output indirectly through interest rate. Keynes defined fiscal policy as the deliberate use of government spending and taxes to achieve macro economic goal. Although, the federal government account for 44 percent of total (federal, state and local) government revenue and for 39 percent of total government expenditure fiscal policy is conducted through federal budget. In the Keynesian model, the link between increase in government spending and aggregated expenditure is vary directly.Keynes believes that during the 1980s, the world capitalist economies indeed reach equilibrium position but high level of unemployment made this position socially unacceptable. His f iscal policy is based on the premises that demand should be manipulated to ensure that the economy achieves an equilibrium level of income and output which is socially desirable. Although, Keynes rule out other possible sources for increase spending, leaving only government intervention as a dependable solutions to the problem. 2. THE IMPACT OF MONETARY AND FISCAL POLICIES ON THE NIGERIAN ECONOMY The public demand for money balances to hold depends on the level of income and the interest rate of money substituted. The higher the income the public has, the larger will be the money balances is wishes to hold, other things been equal, the higher the interest rate on money substitutes the lower will be the money balances it wishes to hold because higher interest rate will induce people to transfer more of their assets out of money (which yield on interest into securities or other asset which do yield interest).Besides, Imala (2003) emphasizes on the impact of monetary restriction. He ar gued that when banks excess reserves are squeezed, the prices they charge on credit, that is the interest rate are raised, but the lower the level of investment as well as gross domestic product, while the product market decreases. He further agues that credit become higher as interest rate rise, investors and consumers tries to avoid the pinch by reducing their money balances to the barest minimum needed to carry on their transactions and meet precautionary needs.He further argued that rationing of credit reduces the availability of credit and a quick effect in limiting business expansion than they do on higher interest rate while banks sells off part of their government securities to loans and limited by the volumes of securities the bank already have and falling government bond prices in many banks try to sell at once in the capital market.However, a balanced budget seems appropriate when we are satisfied with the existing level of government autonomous expenditure roughly doing, the period of full employment without inflation (A balance budget policy is neutrals government policy that feeds back into the income stream just raise it withdrawal). In fact to avoid the deficit, the annual budget balance raise tax rate to get more money or reduces spending to match reduced tad receipt. If we therefore, believe that the government ought to be trying to expand total expenditure in credit to check the recession, the balance budget prescription to Nigeria economy is quite wrong.Similarly, inflation would generate a budget surplus calling for tax reduction and increase spending to avoid a budget surplus under an annually balance budget policy, this seems clearly than wrong prescription to stabilization purpose because it would speed the inflation ratio than cheating it in Nigeria economy. It should be well noted that the basic framework for stabilizing fiscal policy through government surpluses and deficit is simple and appealing if it is ascertained that the respon sibility of government is to provide economic stabilization for the nation.The larger the excess of government expenditure over tax receipt (the larger the deficit) the stronger will be the expansionary effect of government fiscal policy. Other things been equal conversely, the larger the excess of tax receipt over expenditure (the large the surpluses) the more deflationary governments fiscal policy. Some economist believes that when we want the government to exert strong expansionary pressure on national income a substantial government deficit is desirable. CHAPTER THREE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 3. THE THEORIES OF MONETARY AND FISCAL POLICIES Classical economist argues the importance of money as a determinant of aggregate demand. Their views on fiscal policy were less unanimous. During the great depression of the 1930s some of them recommended substantial increase in government spending as a way of increasing demand, output and employment others were quite skeptical about the effect o f fiscal policy. The evidence provides little comfort for extreme Keynesians who focus their attention on fiscal policy and dismiss monetary policy as a mirage and a delusion.And it provide little support to the rigid monetarist who see the quantity of money playing a predominant role in the determination of aggregate demand irrespective of what is happening to fiscal policy. We cannot count with any degree of certainty on the use of fiscal policy alone or monetary policy alone, there is a strong case to be made for using a combined strategy of monetary and fiscal expansions to combat recessions and a combined strategy of monetary and fiscal restraint to fight inflation.By not putting all our eggs in one basket, we may reduce the uncertainty we would face if we were to rely exclusively on either monetary policy or fiscal. Furthermore, there are other reasons for favouring a combination of monetary fiscal strategy. During a boom in aggregate demand, restrictive steps are desirable bu t restrictive actions are painful. When the government increases expenditure or cuts, taxes, deficit will rise thus money will be needed to cover this deficit and which can be borrowed in the financial market. This additional borrowing tends to push up the interest rate.A higher interest rate on the other hand causes a movement along the marginal efficiency of investment (MEI) curve, investment decreases. D D Source: B. O. Iganige Figure 1: The effect of crowding out: The monetarist view This is little question that some crowing out take place, the issue is how strong the investment demand is relatively unresponsive to interest rates and that not must crowding of investments take place. Consequently fiscal policy is a powerful tool for controlling aggregated demand (and monetary policy is weak).Monetarist on the other hand, generally believe that MEI curve is relatively flat as shown in figure 1 and that deficit spending by the government tends to crowd out a relatively large amount of private investment. In casting doubt on the effectiveness of fiscal policy, monetarists make one important qualification. If the government deficit on demand by issuing new fiscal policy will have a powerful effect on demand, but monetarist attribute this effect to a changes in the money stocks, not the government deficit itself. They see pure fiscal policy as having little influence on demand.Pure fiscal policy involves a change in government spending or tax rate unaccompanied by any change in the rate of growth of the money stock. 3. 2 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MONETARY AND FISCAL POLICIES THE IS-LM FRAMEWORK The economic environment that guided monetary policy before 1986 was characterized by the growing importance of the oil sector, the expanding role of the public sector in the economy and over dependence of the external sector. Hicks (1937) combined the classical and the Keynesian analyses to derive the IS-LM schedules.In a simple term the IS-LM framework refers to the locu s of all pairs of income and interest rates for which both the expenditure and monetary sectors are simultaneously in equilibrium. The IS-LM framework lays emphasis on the interaction between the output or expenditure market represented by the IS and money market represented by the LM. In this framework, spending interest rates and income are jointly determined by the equilibrium in both markets. Income Interest rate Fiscal PolicyMonetary Policy (LM) Source: B. O. Iganiga (macro economics concepts) Figure 2: The Structure of the IS-LMIn the framework, higher income raises money demand and thus link interest rate. Higher interest rate lower spending and thus income, thus the only factor that make the economy to move round is income and interest rate. However, simultaneous equilibrium in the expenditure market and money market exist at only one output level and one interest rate i. e. ye and re. At that point planned savings plus government expenditure and the stock of money in existe nce is equal to the stock of money demanded. The interest rate (r0) and income level (YO) represent the only point at which the two equilibria are satisfied simultaneously.Other interest rates and output levels represent disequilibrium in one or both markets. r0 r1 Source: B. O. Iganiga (Macro economics concepts, theories and application Figure 3 Equilibrium at IS-LM Intersection In figure 3, at interest r1 there is equilibrium in the money market at output Y1 but in the expenditure market at output Y2. Simultaneous equilibrium only exist only at point E0 with interest rate of (r0) and output of (Ye) summarily, figure 3 shows the relationship between money supply, government expenditure and interest rate.In order to maintain price stability and a wealthy balance of payment position, monetary management depend on the use of direct monetary instrument such as credit ceiling, selective credit controls, administered interest, exchange rate as well as the prescription of cash reserve req uirement and special deposits. The use of market based instrument was not feasible due to the under ¬developed nature of the financial market and the deliberate restraint on interest rates. The expenditure market (Is) illustrating the effect of interest rate alone in shifting the aggregate demand schedule.The position of the IS curve depends on the marginal efficacy of investment (MEI) curve. Shift in either or both will cause a shift is IS curve. Therefore example could be a shift in MEI due to technical progress. Net investment will increase at all level of interest rate. Changes in government expenditure or taxation could bring about a change in this schedule. 3. 3MATHEMATICAL AND GRAPHICAL DERIVATION OF IS-LM SCHEDULE Mathematical Derivation For Is Curve Y= C+ I —————————————— (1) C= Co + CY———————————â⠂¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€ (2) I= I0-Ir —————————————— (3)Y= Co + CY+ Io-Ir ——————————- (4) (Y-CY)= Co + Io-Ir —————————— (5) Y (1-C) = Co+ Io-Ir—————————— (6) Co + Io-Ir Y= 1-C —————————– (7) -IS Curve Income is negatively related to interest rate. r I S 0Y Source: I. A. O. BAKARE (Fundamentals and Practice of Macroeconomics) (LM) Figure 4: IS CURVE When government spending and taxes are introduced, the following relation holds. Y= C0 +C(Y –T + R) + I0 + I(Y, r) + Go—————- (1) Where T= Taxes and Go = Autonomous government spending The slope of the IS curve is given as dr = 1-cy (1-T y) -1y

Understanding Experimental Groups

Scientific experiments often include two groups: the experimental group and the control group. Heres a closer look at the experimental group and how to distinguish it from the experimental group. Key Takeaways: Experimental Group The experimental group is the set of subjects exposed to a change in the independent variable. While its technically possible to have a single subject for an experimental group, the statistical validity of the experiment will be vastly improved by increasing the sample size.In contrast, the control group is identical in every way to the experimental group, except the independent variable is held constant. Its best to have a large sample size for the control group, too.Its possible for an experiment to contain more than one experimental group. However, in the cleanest experiments, only one variable is changed. Experimental Group Definition An experimental group in a scientific experiment is the group on which the experimental procedure is performed. The independent variable is changed for the group and the response or change in the dependent variable is recorded. In contrast, the group that does not receive the treatment or in which the independent variable is held constant is called the control group. The purpose of having experimental and control groups is to have sufficient data to be reasonably sure the relationship between the independent and dependent variable is not due to chance. If you perform an experiment on only one subject (with and without treatment) or on one experimental subject and one control subject you have limited confidence in the outcome. The larger the sample size, the more probable the results represent a real correlation. Example of an Experimental Group You may be asked to identify the experimental group in an experiment as well as the control group. Heres an example of an experiment and how to tell these two key groups apart. Lets say you want to see whether a nutritional supplement helps people lose weight. You want to design an experiment to test the effect. A poor experiment would be to take a supplement and see whether or not you lose weight. Why is it bad? You only have one data point! If you lose weight, it could be due to some other factor. A better experiment (though still pretty bad) would be to take the supplement, see if you lose weight, stop taking the supplement and see if the weight loss stops, then take it again and see if weight loss resumes. In this experiment you are the control group when you are not taking the supplement and the experimental group when you are taking it. Its a terrible experiment for a number of reasons. One problem is that the same subject is being used as both the control group and the experimental group. You dont know, when you stop taking treatment, that is doesnt have a lasting effect. A solution is to design an experiment with truly separate control and experimental groups. If you have a group of people who take the supplement and a group of people who do not, the ones exposed to the treatment (taking the supplement) are the experimental group. The ones not-taking it are the control group. How to Tell Control and Experimental Group Apart In an ideal situation, every factor that affects a member of both the control group and experimental group is exactly the same except for one -- the independent variable. In a basic experiment, this could be whether something is present or not. Present experimental; absent control. Sometimes, its more complicated and the control is normal and the experimental group is not normal. For example, if you want to see whether or not darkness has an effect on plant growth. Your control group might be plants grown under ordinary day/night conditions. You could have a couple of experimental groups. One set of plants might be exposed to perpetual daylight, while another might be exposed to perpetual darkness. Here, any group where the variable is changed from normal is an experimental group. Both the all-light and all-dark groups are types of experimental groups. Sources Bailey, R.A. (2008). Design of Comparative Experiments. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521683579. Hinkelmann, Klaus and Kempthorne, Oscar (2008). Design and Analysis of Experiments, Volume I: Introduction to Experimental Design (Second ed.). Wiley. ISBN 978-0-471-72756-9.